Erasmus (1467-1536)
Born in Rotterdam 28 October 1467 Desiderius,
or Erasmus as he became known, was illegitimate, his parents never
marrying. His father was a burgher named Gerard in Torgau; his mother
Margaret was the daughter of Peter, a physician at Sevenbergen
in Brabant. The father`s family refused to allow the couple to marry and
Gerard went to Rome, where he became a monk ( he had been told that
Margaret and child had died). Subsequently they got back together but by
then he was bound by the church law not to marry. Their son was sent to
school at the age of four and became a chorister at Utrecht, before going
on to school at Daventer where a schoolmate was Adrianus Florentius, later
to be Pope Adrian VI. Both parents died when Erasmus was thirteen
and he and his brother Peter, were sent by guardians to a monastic school
which specialised in preparing for the church. In time he entered
the regular canons of the monastery of Stein, near Torgau in 1486. In 1492
he was ordained by the bishop of Utrecht.
As an Augustinian monk he was allowed to leave
the cloister to become secretary to the Bishop of Cambrai. He was able to
travel and visited England first in 1496-1498 and on a later visit taught
Greek as Lady Margaret Reader, at Cambridge. He led a disjointed life
wandering around Europe and was often penniless desiring mainly to study
and improve his mind. He went to Italy and gained a doctorate of divinity
at Bononia and again at the university of Turin. He was well known and
made many important contacts wherever he went, and was a favourite in Rome
with cardinals and the pope (Leo X) although none were helpful to him
financially. In 1510 he returned to England and was residing with Thomas
More when he wrote Encomium Moriae ( Praise of Folly). Other very influential works
followed,
including his Enchiridion militis Christiani ( the Christian
Soldier`s Dagger, or manual), ; Colloquia
(Dialogues) and Adagia (Proverbs) . He left over 3000 letters
which give an invaluable record of the Renaissance. His contributions to
the Reformation were in essence twofold, firstly his translation and
publication of the Greek New Testament (into Latin); and second, his
dissemination of information, including his work, to a wide network
of friends and influential contacts throughout Europe.
The young Erasmus arrived at Oxford
University at a propitious time, coming into contact with
John Colet. Said to be of a frail stature
but keen and quick witted he soon became the pupil and friend of the
staid theologian. This association so impressed the young man that it
changed his whole life and with it history. A common interest in Greek and
the opportunities it afforded to study the ancient authors worked in them,
and Erasmus soon produced his satire “The Praise of Folly ” (1510).
A tongue in cheek commentary on the folly`s of the day attacked all
classes and abuses, Theologians, monks, Popes, nobles, princes and kings –
all came in for the keen satire. It was printed in 1512 and within a few
months went through seven editions. Such was the demand that it eventually
went to twenty seven editions during Erasmus`s lifetime. Printed in Latin
it was circulated in every university and country in Europe and the
common talking point for everybody. It became a common saying that
“Erasmus injured
the Pope more by joking than Luther by scolding.”
He was able, perhaps lucky, to defend
himself against the threats of the Church by saying that the comments were
ascribed to `Folly` and were to be taken as such. At Cambridge Erasmus
became busily engaged in preparing a new text of the Greek
Testament, a work that would contribute more to the learned peoples of the day
than any other. By the beginning of 1515 Erasmus was firmly established as
the leading light of a literary circle in Europe, let alone the
universities of England. He had a widespread range of contacts with whom
he assiduously corresponded and exchanged ideas and manuscripts. But a
cloud on the horizon was in the shape of Standish, Bishop of St Asaph, who
had a deep and personal hatred of Erasmus for lampooning him. Standish was
an antagonist of John Colet but turned his ire upon his friend Erasmus, an
easier target, and sought to lay the usual charges of heresy. By attacking
the scholar and attempting to discredit his work the clerics hoped to
forestall the literary vogue for translation, and the inevitable
consequence it would bring – a translation of the Testament into the
common tongue.
Wisely, Erasmus decided that he could no
longer steer a middle course and stay neutral in the religious debate.
He was especially critical of the monks and their dissolute ways; those of
Louvain particularly resented his intervention with the church hierarchy
to whom Erasmus regularly wrote. Erasmus then went to Basle where he worked in the shop of the printer Frobenius and completed his New Testament
and a work on St Jerome. From Basle he distributed the
New Testament to his friends in the universities of London Oxford, and Cambridge. Appearing in 1516 and dedicated to
his friend Pope Leo X, it
contained parallel columns of the Greek text and the Latin
translation and gave a much purer translation. He had consulted some nine
manuscripts and explained to the Pope that he had merely corrected errors
that had crept in. The Testament was well received and endorsed by the
Bishop of Basle. But there were still the malcontents who brought
forth indignant cries that he had `changed` the holy word. For years the only available version had been the Vulgate but Erasmus`s work brought home to the clerics and people alike that the
Vulgate was, after all, only a second hand version of the Scriptures and
not the sacred work of repute. A second volume was published in 1519; the
two ran to three thousand three hundred copies.
Despite acceptance of the translated New
Testament by the Pope, the inevitable clamour
arose from the priests who saw that their authority would be undermined if
the original Latin version was confuted. Their objections were such that
they even used the confessional to warn young
students against it. Some colleges forbid it. A great effort was made
by the clerics to spread their objections among the poorer people, being unable to voice
them to the educated and well of. The clerics of all ranks did
their worst, accusing Erasmus of heresy, aggrieved that there was `no
longer anything in common between the Holy Ghost and monks`. An
instance of his heresy they claimed was that he had changed Matthew
iv, 17 so that man was called to repent instead of (as in the
Vulgate) to do penance.
Erasmus said of the monks
” none barked more furiously
than those who never saw even the outside of the book.”
and fuelled the flames of
the clerical fears by declaring
“Perhaps it may be
necessary to conceal the secrets of kings, but we must publish the
mysteries of Christ.”
In Wittenberg another
former monk (Martin Luther) nailed his thoughts and criticisms of
indulgences to the church door, and
transformed the desire for reform from a supine intellectual debate into
one of positive action.
Among those who
were affected by his work were Thomas
Bilney, and William Tyndale who used the
third edition of Erasmus`s work to produce his own English New Testament.
Erasmus was as much interested in the
establishment of literature and the sciences, as he was in religious
debate. He was at odds with Luther for much of the time, but held him in
such high regard despite their differences, that he repeatedly refused to
write against him. He received many promises of substantial reward,
including bishoprics, if he undertook such a task, but in the end he
defended Luther . Importantly he made his support to Frederick,
Elector of Saxony, to whom he said that Luther had justly censured
many abuses and errors which, for the sake of the health of the church,
required reform; that Luther`s doctrine was right in the main, but
it had not been delivered by him ” with a proper temper and due
moderation.”
A prodigious author, Erasmus was the
greatest scholar of his age and esteemed by most who came into contact
with him, both Protestant and Catholic. It is important to remember that
his criticisms and satire about the Folly of man et al, was well
established, as was his reputation as an outstanding scholar, before
the religious differences became an issue. His particular contribution to
religion were his new editions of works by Jerome, Cyprian, Hilary, Irenaeus, Ambrose, Augustin, Arnobius, Algerus and Origen; and the many
translations from the Greek into Latin – not least the New Testament which
filled a huge void in the understanding of the people when most needed. As
to his own religion, it is said that he lived a Catholic but died a
Protestant. Had he been able to establish a new religion he would have
been moderate, latitudinarian as to creed, with few articles of faith and
those with primitive simplicity.
18/07/2011
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